The existence of Martial arts in India for over 3000 years can be proved by the mention of martial arts in the Vedas. According to ancient folklore, Lord Vishnu’s disciple Parasurama who was an avatar of Lord Vishnu is believed to be the founder of martial arts in India. Kalaripayattu, which is the most popular amongst many martial arts practiced in India, is believed to have been founded by Parasurama.

Kalaripayattu is probably the oldest form of martial arts in India. The word kalaripayattu is a combination of two words, namely, ‘kalari’ and ‘payattu’ which mean training ground and fight. Kalaripayattu is an ancient art form and is considered to be one of the oldest forms of martial art in India and across the world. During the peak of its popularity, kalaripayattu was used as a code of combat by the South Indian dynasties. Kalaripayattu reaches its zenith during the hundred years of war between the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras. The constant fighting between the princely states helped the fighters in refining the art into a martial art form.

Many martial arts in India have been forgotten due to neglect and lack of proper documentation of their existence but kalaripayattu has stood the test of time. During the 13th and 16th centuries, art gained dominance and was incorporated into many religions as well. It was customary in Kerala to have all children above the age of seven obtain training in kalaripayattu. Martial arts in India were considered a code of life for many. However, during the British occupation, martial arts in India suffered major setbacks. The ruling British objected to the tradition of training with and carrying arms. Laws were passed and implemented with zest to prevent the people from practicing and training in kalaripayattu.

These laws were put in place by the British to quell the chances of any form of mutiny or rebellion among the natives. But the British had underestimated the love of martial arts in India and kalaripayattu was secretly practiced and kept alive during the colonial occupation of India by the British. The art was practiced by people in rural areas to avoid a confrontation with the authorities. Thus, one of the main martial arts of India survived the dark times when curbs were imposed on its practices. On being declared independent, martial arts in India were in vogue again as they could now be practiced without hesitation. The lost glory of kalaripayattu was regained slowly and steadily. Many movements and postures in the art of kalaripayattu are believed to be inspired by the raw strength of animals and are also named after them. There is a strong belief that this art was developed in the forests when hunters observed the fighting techniques of different animals.

Today martial arts in India are back in focus. Kalaripayattu is now practiced widely across Kerala, fringes of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and also in Sri Lanka. Kalaripayattu is also a source of living for many people in Kerala as performances are now conducted for tourists. Kalaripayattu has stood the test of time, unlike many other martial arts in India. Historically, kalaripayattu has proven to be one of the most ancient martial arts in India and is still being practiced by many in Southern India.

Shiva was said to have taught Parasurama, the art of Kalaripayattu, which arose itself out of Shiva's war with his Father-In-Law Daksha, one of the Prajapatis or 'Lords Of Creation'. Later, Parasurama taught his 21 disciples the art of Kalaripayattu and then opened 108 Kalari (schools/gymnasiums) around the Kerala region, Southern Indian state. There are no records that chronicle the historical origins of Kalaripayattu, only narrative accounts formatted as myth and legend. Most of these credit Kalari's origins to Lord Shiva, one of the three principle Gods of the Hindu pantheon. Shiva has many aspects, he is depicted as moral and paternal, also called the Lord of Time (Mahakala), the 'Destroyer' of all things. He is the Yogeshwara who dwells in Kailas, deep in the meditation that maintains this very existence.

Ideology and History of Kalarippayatt, a Martial Art in Kerala

Kalarippayatt is body art and the only way to learn it is a hard practice. Kalarippayattu has been considered to be divine martial art by its Kalari teachers or Kalari Gurukkanmar. Kalarippayatt is known as Kerala’s own art, Kerala’s power and beauty, and the mother of all martial arts. Kalarippayatt had an incorporated relation to the rulers in Medieval Kerala. With the upcoming colonial powers, Kalarippayatt started to face its decline. After realizing the military skills of Kalarapayattt, the British started to destroy these indigenous military martial art by disarming policies. As a part of nationalism, Kalaraippayatt was revived in the 1920s. Modern Kerala witnesses a new form of Kalarippayatt. Now there is exhibitionism of the Kalarippayatt that prevails in contemporary Kalarippayatt performances.

Kalaries used to be constructed in the locality where the aristocratic houses were situated. Most of the aristocratic families had their own Kalaries. Kalaries are constructed on the basis of Tachu Sastra. There are two kinds of Kalaries: the Cerukalari and Kuzhikalari or Pitkalari, which are built for practicing physical and weapon training. Kuzhikalaries are still used now. Kalari is built in the southwest corner of the plot. The face of Kalari should be faced towards the east. The construction of an Ankakalari should follow some architectural style, “Earth is dug out to a depth of about three feet from a rectangular plot of ground measuring forty two feet in length in an east westerly direction and twenty one feet in breadth. The dug up soil is piled around the pit and rammed in to strong ridges. The floor is also levelled and rammed. The area is thatched roofed with the support of two main pillars one in the east and other in the west”. Anka Kalari is the place where fights used to be conducted. These kinds of Kalaries are helpful to maintain the body temperature of the practitioners; more mud in these kinds of Kalaries is also good as it cannot cause any skin disease to the practitioners.

Definition of Kalarippayatt as a term

C.V Narayanan Nair, the prominent Kalarippayatt practitioner translates the word Kalarippayatt into English as ‘The Art of Fencing”. According to Zaralli the term Kalarippayatt is derived from two words Kalari and Payattu. In Malayalam, Kalari means open space, threshing floor, and battlefield. “This word derives from the Tamil word Kalam meaning arena, an arena for gladiatorial or gymnastic exhibitions, and assembly place of work or business. In Malayalam, the word Kalari idiomatically refers to the special place where martial exercises are taught. In Tamil payilamil means to become trained. In Malayalam, pailuka means to learn, and speak. Payattuka means to exercise in arms, practice, and having the idiomatic meaning fencing exercise a trick.

The word Kalarippayatt was not used as a compound word in Vadakkan Pattukal[v]. Malayalam lexicon notes, the word Kalarippayatt was used as a compound word for the first time in Ullor Parameswaran’s early twentieth century drama titled Amba[vi]. Sasidaryan argued that Kalari and Kalarividya are different. Kalari, as an open space, Kalarividya, the word includes the whole body of knowledge, including aspects of fighting technique (Payattu) healthcare, education, rituals, lifestyle, philosophy, meditation, the art of life, and the art of performance. But in modern Kerala, the word Kalarividya replaced by the word Kalarippayatt. But this word Kalarippayatt is deficient to represent the wholesome activities of the word Kalarividya. The word Kalarippaytt shows the fencing art aspect only.[vii]

Various regional styles of Kalarippayattu

The style of the techniques and training of Kalalarippayatt is different from region to region. Kalarippayatt is divided into three categories: Northern Kalarippayatt, Central Kalarippaytt, and Southern Kalarippayatt. The Northern Kalari itself included three different types called.

The northern style of Kalarippayatt focuses Arappukkai, Pillathangi, and Vattenthiruppus on hero combat. Training of weapons was the main technique of those regions. The square pattern of footwork is the central technique in the central Kalarippayatt. The origin of the central style of Kalarippayatt is related to the Chaver[viii] and Mamangam[ix].

The mythology of Northern and central Kalarippayatt is traced back to the linkage of Parasurama while the southern tradition relates to Agasthya saint. The southern tradition promotes spontaneous fighting which is also called Dranam Palli Sampradhaya. They are not giving much importance to the weapons. These traditions of Kalarippayatt emphasize different methods of training in weaponry and the importance of bodily engagements including Verumkai (empty-hand), Koltari (wooden weapon), Ankamtari (iron weapons).

Origin and institutionalization of Kalarippayatt

It is very difficult to trace out the actual period when Kalarippayatt evolved. There are various myths about the origin of Kalarippayatt and its institutionalization from region to region. Various Keralolpathy[x] narratives tell us various stories behind the origin of Kalarippayatt, among them two myths are very popular in north and south Kerala. The most popular myth related to Kalarippayatt goes back to the mythical history of Parasurama who considered the founder of Kerala. He brought thirty-two Brahmin families and taught them the art of combat and archery in the new land he had reclaimed. Another story is that Kalarippayattu originated from Lord Siva and his Sivatandava.

In south Kerala, another popular notion is that Hindu saint legend Agastya is the founder of Kalarippayatt. Another Keralolpahti claimes that origin of Kalarippayatt trace back to the Dhanurvedha. But the historians questioned the authenticity of this Keralolpathi and these myths[xi]. Modern historian K.N Ganesh has criticized that the authors of this Keralolpathies are Brahmins and their views about the origin of Kalarippayatt was a part of their vested interests to make link between all local traditions with Brahmanism.

Eellam Kullam Kunjan Pilla is the first historian who tried to trace out the period when Kalarippayat evolved. He argues that Kalarippayatt has evolved over the hundred years of the Chola Chera war. But the period of this war is questioned by other historians. Vijayakumar says in his book ‘Kalarippayatt kerelathinte sakthiyum sountharyavum’

that, the Kalarippayatt evolved and developed during the Sangam period. Travelers recorded the heroism and the expertise of the soldiers in the Kalarippyatt in various accounts. Folk songs are a very important source for the study of Kalarippayatt and its evolution. There is an argument that the savage man made the footsteps of Kalarippayatt from the animal fight.

Kalarippayatt, meaning and ideology in Medieval Kerala

Kalarippayatt in medieval Kerala is considered a ritual art. “Kalari (a space) and Kalarippayatt (praxis) personify religious themes through their various representations”. Kalarippayatt is always practiced in a sacred and divine atmosphere. The construction of Kalari especially the Kuzhi Kalari itself resembles a temple. Some Kalaris are constructed as a part of temples of Bhadrakali or Bhagavathi cult. Kalaries worship female deities that are various forms of Bhadrakali. In all Kalaries, Patti says “Seven tapering semi-circular steps at the corner form a pedestal known as Puttara. Next to the Puttara on the northwestern end remains Ganapatipitom, the abode of Lord Ganesha, a remover of all obstacles.

Adjacent to the Puttaara and north of the Ganapatipitom lies a small- elevated place known as Guruttara constructed in memory of Gurukkal, or ancient teachers of martial arts. Here, the Puttara and Guruttara are adorned with flowers and Nilavilakku(traditional lamp) defines the space as a ritual space. The Gods and the spiritual dimension of the Kalari express the inherent significance of Kalarippayatt”[xiv].In Kalari, Kalari Gurukkal or Kalari master is considered the human god. It is a strict rule followed by all the Kalaries that a student should get the blessing from Kalari Gurukkal during the time of admission to Kalaries.

The practice of Kalarippayatt is starting with the lighting of the lamp in the Puthara by the Kalari Gurukkal. Moreover, a student must pray Puthara and Guruthara and Kalari Gurukkal when she or he enters the Kalari. Before starting the practice of weapons, there is a custom that the student should get a blessing from the Kalari Gurukkal. This all shows that Kalari is an institution of devotion and power. Contemporary Kalaries still follow these rituals but are not practiced as strictly as medieval Kalaries.

Before starting the Kalarippayatt competition, the candidates who are going to fight, respect each other through a particular item of performance called Thozuth, a kind of prayer that shows respect for each other. This practice itself teaches the performer of Kalarippayatt the value of sportsmanship. Maipayattu or body exercise is the most important part of the practice of Kalarippayatt which make the Kalarippayatt practitioner good-minded and healthy. Moreover, the defensive nature of Kalarippayatt helps the practitioner to be confident and prudent which changes his or her body to the state of the phrase ‘when the body becomes all eyes’. Zaralli argues that the Kalari is a complex nexus of experience and self-formation, a crucible for an individual’s experience and the embodied practice which helps to shape a self.[xv] Kalarippayatt in medieval Kerala is also considered a cultural performance. During the Onam festival Kalarippayatt competition is conducted, usually, large numbers of people including the Nair women attend the platform as spectators.

Political geography and role of Kalarippayatt in the medieval Kerala society

By the end of the twelfth century, the Chera empire disintegrated into numerous principalities, Brahmanic socioeconomic dominance was consolidated through control of an extensive area of gifted lands, ritual dominance by means of hierarchal ordered relationships, and an intricate pattern of a martial relationship with Kshatriyas and high ranking Nayars. It was the period of Naduvazhies who were the rulers of ‘Nadus’, which means a region. The important Nadus are Venad, Kolathunad, Cochin, and Calicut. The temples were also very powerful in this period. Most of the temples owned vast areas of land and they have separate armies to protect this wealth. According to Elamkulam, the Medieval Kerala society was dominated by the Janmi system headed by the Nampoothiri Brahmans known as Uralars who were the owners of the Devasam land and Brahmasam land and Karalars were the laborers. These classifications formed the backbone of medieval society..

Organized Kalarippayatt institutions used to supply people for fighting and to capture power. In this context, it is institutionalized as a power mechanism.

There are large numbers of references to the valor of Nair soldiers by the foreign travelers who visited Kerala during that particular period. Portuguese traveler called Duarte Barbose who visited Kerala in the 15th century describe a Nair soldier in detail for the first time. Fosat, who is the author of the ‘Nairs of the Malabar’, describes a Kalari of the Paruva caste, where he points out that the lower caste also had their own Kalaries, but they didn’t have the right to train in upper caste Kalaries. Another traveler Abu Saithu refers to the valor of a Chaver in his work. Such travelogues show the marvelous beauty of the Kalarippayatt and the skills of the Kerala martial practitioners. British government official records also mentioned that the local rulers of Kerala had a strong well disciplined efficient military. The disarm policy of the British to disarm Kerala Kalaries was the result of British fear of Kerala military supremacy.

The Ezhavas who trained in Kalarippayatt were called Chekavars and Nairs who constituted the prominent soldiers at that time. Vadakkan Pattukal refers to a woman called Unniyarcha who was well-trained in Kalarippayyatt, she was also a Kalari teacher. This reveals that the women from the Kalari families were trained in Kalarippayatt. Based on this particular political structure, the nature of the medieval Kerala society was martially oriented as all the Nadus maintained well-organized military troops. For organizing this martial troop Naduvazhies depended on the Kalaries where the youngsters trained Kalarippayatt. These facts show that the Kalarippayatt has been playing the role of a power apparatus in medieval Kerala society.

Status of Kalarippayatt in Colonial Kerala

For the first time, British banned the use of weapons and the art of fencing. In Thiruvithamkur and Kochi, they introduced some control on the Kalarippayatt as a part of the war tactics to reduce the military power of Veluthambi Dalawa and Pazhassiraja. Angam and poyth are the backbone of the Kalarippayatt. In 1792, the British banned Angam by law. Again British banned the practice of Kalarippayatt in 1804 by law. British intentionally reduced the number of soldiers in the armies of the Naduvazhies.

Indian arms Act in 1878 banned the people from making and keeping arms. These disarmament policies of the government and their actions towards confiscating the arms saw a decline in this art. Kalalarippayatt has lost its various techniques like Dranam Palli technique and Odimurriseri techniques. Police raided houses, confiscated all arms, and disarmed all Kalaries and Kalari practitioners. By the upcoming of the Portuguese itself, due to the popularity of guns and gunpowder for military purposes, Kalarippayattu could not survive as a powerful institution in the society. Kalaries came to the temples to protect the weapons from the attack of the British.

Revival of Kalarippayatt

It was in Talacheri that the resurgence of public interest in Kalarippayatt began in 1920 as part of the wave rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which showed the growing reaction against British rule. Revival of Kalarippayatt was led by Kottakkal Kanaran Gurukkal and his disciple C. V. N Narayanan.

Palm leaves manuscripts on the Kalarippayatt by the old medieval Kalarippayatt Gurukkal has been preserved the long-aged traditions and techniques of the Kalarippayatt. However, it could not keep the medieval form of Kalarippayatt in detail and it lost so many Payattu Mura or the techniques of the Kalarippayatt. Kalarippayatt lost its glory and the role of a powerful institution after the British intervened in the lives of Kerala. In Modern India, the old face of the Kalarippayatt totally changed and turned in a new direction.

Kalari tradition had three aspects: Kalari practice, the practicability of Kalari, and Kalari as a medicine. The practicability of Kalari is different from medieval Kerala to modern Kerala. Kalaries are open to all castes in society. But with the coming of foreign martial arts like Kungfue and Karate, Kerla society also got attracted towards these new martial arts and ignored the Kalarippayatt and its importance as a martial art in making the body fit.

Kalarippayatt as a cultural institution and the heritage of Modern Kerala

After the revival of Kalarippayatt in modern Kerala, it faced an identity problem as it lost its old status as a powerful institution in society. This was the time to find out the new role of the Kalarippayatt in society. Revivalists of the Kalarippayatt faced several problems. Here the role of C. V. N Narayanan Nair in spreading Kalarippayatt as an art among the society is noticeable. He used the exhibitionism of Kalarippayatt and it became a performance art. For getting public appeal, many innovations were made which help this particular Martial art to get wide popularity among the world and it became a cultural symbol of Kerala tourism. The agenda was to popularize a new form of Kalarippayattu. For getting popularity, they used choreographed Kalarippayatt dance. Moreover, dancers like Chandra Lekha took this martial art form and developed some dance fusion.

Kalarippayatt as a defence art and a gynaecium in Modern Kerala

Kalarippayatt has been considered as a defence art form in its very formation. But it has different meanings and different functions both in medieval and modern Kerala under the title of ‘defence art’. In medieval Kerala, Kalarippayatt was a powerful institution. Ankam and Poyth were the agents of this martial institution; therefore defence had broader meanings. At that time the defence of ruling groups was also a part of the duty of Kalarippayatt. But in the modern period, Kalarippayatt has a narrow meaning, that is individual defence only.

After the 1980’s large number of Kalaries opened for the people to practice Kalarippayatt. Here society used to get benefit from the Kalarippayatt as an exercise. This is well connected to the larger structural changes in Kerala society. In 1980, Kerala witnessed the migration of a large number of people to the gulf countries. Gulf migration helped the families to improve their economic status and led to the emergence of the new middle class. These Gulf migrants acquired a new identity in their social life. During this time, the physical culture changed in society, Masculinities and femininity changed to a new notion. Because of the gulf money, drinking and smoking became common as a character in a masculinity. The cash becomes the value of that society. Food culture also changed. In this background, people are thinking about a healthy and masculine body. As a result, this awareness of a healthy body attracted people to Kalarippayatt as a sports item.

In 1958, the Kerala Kalarippayatt association was formed under the Kerala sports council. Most of the Kalaries are registered under this association. The association used to conduct the Kalarippayatt stage performances to spread the popularity of the Kalarippayatt among the mass. Moreover, there are many debates on the new policy of the government to take Kalarippayatt as part of the school curriculum and recruitment of teachers from the Kalari practitioners. This will give new impetus to the position of Kalarippayatt.

To conclude, in medieval Kerala, Kalarippayattu had an all-encompassing role in society as it involved and affected all aspects of society. But in modern Kerala, the status of Kalarippayatt is reduced to a stage performance and remains outside life. The change between the Kalarippayatt from the relationship between the military and society to martial artist and the spectator is a consequence of a drastic change in society.

References:

Ashitha Mandakathingal | University of Calicut | (Research Scholar, University of Hyderabad) | MN Rajesh may be contacted at - This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

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